Acknowledgments                                    xiii
        Maps                                       xv
Preliminary notes                                  xix
Introduction                                       xxix
    The Crises That Are Burma/Myanmar              1   (14)
      What is Burma?                               1   (1)
      Why are we interested in Burma/Myanmar?      1   (2)
      Why should we be interested in               3   (3)
      Burma/Myanmar?
      What can we learn from Burma/Myanmar?        6   (2)
      Why is learning about Burma/Myanmar so       8   (2)
      difficult?
      What are the crises facing Burma/Myanmar?    10  (5)
    Important Residues from the Precolonial        15  (11)
    Period
      How does Burmese history relate to           15  (3)
      contemporary events?
      How did Burmese kings view governance and    18  (2)
      authority, and is this relevant today?
      What were Burma's relations with internal    20  (3)
      peoples, regions, and neighboring states?
      What was the role of Buddhism in             23  (3)
      traditional Burma?
    The Colonial Era's Importance in               26  (14)
    Understanding Burma/Myanmar Today
      What led to the three Anglo-Burman Wars      26  (2)
      of the nineteenth century?
      What was the role of India in colonial       28  (3)
      Burma, what are its residual influences,
      and why are they important?
      What economic development programs did       31  (1)
      the British introduce?
      What was the role of Buddhism during this    32  (2)
      period and what social changes affected
      the society?
      How did Burmese nationalism develop and      34  (2)
      what have been its effects?
      What was the impact of World War II on       36  (1)
      Burma, and what effect did the Japanese
      conquest have on Burma and its future?
      How did the Burma army develop in the        37  (1)
      colonial period and under the Japanese?
      How do the Burmese today consider the        38  (2)
      colonial era?
    Independence and the Civilian Government       40  (22)
    (1948-1962): Mixed Heritages
      How did independence come about?             40  (2)
      What was the role of Aung San?               42  (1)
      How did Burma deal with the political and    43  (1)
      ethnic rebellions?
      Why didn't Burma join the Commonwealth?      44  (1)
      How did the Chinese nationalist incursion    45  (2)
      affect Burma?
      What were relations with the United          47  (1)
      States?
      What were relations with China?              48  (2)
      Was Burma communist or socialist, and        50  (1)
      what were the ideological influences on
      the society?
      What were the government's plans for         51  (1)
      economic development?
      What were the effects of the 1947            52  (1)
      civilian constitution?
      How did the AFPFL operate and govern?        53  (1)
      What caused the military ``Caretaker''       54  (2)
      Government, how did it function, and what
      was its legacy?
      How did the minorities fare under the        56  (2)
      civilian government?
      How did the 1960 elections affect Burma?     58  (1)
      What caused the coup of 1962?                59  (1)
      How may we evaluate the civilian,            60  (2)
      democratic period?
    The Military Coup, the Socialist Period        62  (19)
    (1962-1988), and the Perpetuation of
    Military Rule
      What were the effects of the coup?           62  (2)
      What was the ``Burmese Way to Socialism''?   64  (1)
      How did the BSPP operate?                    65  (1)
      What was the impact of the socialist         66  (1)
      policies?
      How were foreign relations under the BSPP?   67  (1)
      How did the 1974 constitution come about     68  (2)
      and what was its impact?
      How did the indigenous minorities fare       70  (1)
      under the 1974 unitary state?
      How were monks registered?                   71  (1)
      How was citizenship defined?                 72  (1)
      What was the role of                         73  (2)
      General/President/Chairman Ne Win?
      What happened to the economy in the 1980s?   75  (2)
      What were the causes of the 1988 People's    77  (4)
      Revolution and the coup that followed?
    The SLORC/SPDC Era (1988---Present):           81  (67)
    Continuation of Military Power
      What was the SLORC and how did it change     82  (1)
      into the SPDC?
      Who were the leaders of the military in      83  (2)
      this period, and how were they trained?
      What political and economic policies were    85  (2)
      instituted shortly after the coup?
      How did the political opposition develop     87  (1)
      and what was the National League for
      Democracy?
      What was the role of Aung San Suu Kyi and    88  (2)
      what has happened to her?
      What were the May 1990 elections about       90  (3)
      and what were the internal and external
      results?
      What were the SLORC/SPDC's international     93  (2)
      relations, and how did Asian and Western
      nations react to the coup and the regime?
      What is the state of social services in      95  (3)
      Myanmar?
      What is the status of the private sector     98  (3)
      in Myanmar?
      What is the status and role of the           101 (2)
      military in Myanmar?
      How does the narcotics trade affect the      103 (3)
      society and international relations?
      What are the roles and influence of          106 (3)
      minority religions (Islam, Christianity)
      in Myanmar?
      What is and has been the status of women     109 (1)
      in Burma/Myanmar?
      What is the status of the cease-fires        110 (4)
      with minority insurrections in Myanmar?
      What are relations with the United States?   114 (6)
      What are relations with China and what is    120 (2)
      the status of the Chinese in Myanmar?
      What is India's policy toward Myanmar and    122 (2)
      how did it change?
      What was Japan's relationship with           124 (2)
      Burma/Myanmar?
      What has been the role of civil society      126 (2)
      and quasi-governmental groups?
      What is the status of human rights in        128 (2)
      Myanmar?
      Why was General/Prime Minister Khin Nyunt    130 (2)
      removed from power, and what did this
      mean?
      Why was the capital moved from Rangoon to    132 (3)
      Naypyidaw?
      What is the role of Buddhism in Myanmar      135 (2)
      today and what is its relation to
      political legitimacy?
      What happened in the Saffron Revolution      137 (2)
      of 2007?
      What were the internal and external          139 (3)
      effects of Cyclone Nargis in 2008?
      What happened in the referendum on the       142 (6)
      constitution in 2008 and what are its
      provisions?
    The Nature of Burmese Politics                 148 (10)
      How do politics in Burma/Myanmar             149 (9)
      function, and what are its implications?
    Issues in Myanmar's Future                     158 (22)
      What are the current and future strategic    159 (3)
      interests of foreign powers in Myanmar?
      What is the future of the military in        162 (2)
      Myanmar under any new government?
      How will the minorities deal with the new    164 (1)
      government?
      What types of economic crises does the       165 (4)
      country face?
      What are the social crises facing the        169 (1)
      state?
      What are the needs of the state in a         170 (1)
      transition to a new government?
      What role is there for multilateral and      171 (1)
      bilateral donors?
      Is democracy a reasonable expectation for    172 (2)
      Myanmar in the near term? In the future?
      What role can the major powers play in       174 (1)
      Myanmar?
      What might be the roles of ASEAN, the UN,    175 (3)
      and the EU?
      What might the role of the Burmese           178 (2)
      diaspora be in a new government?
Coda                                               180 (7)
Postscript                                         187 (3)
Suggested Reading                                  190 (5)
Index                                              195 (22)
About the Author                                   217